non interference adopted by brits (plains + hills)
lot of economic dev - tea plantations
plains more dev than hills
hilly autonomous, relative deprivation
lower plains discriminating against hilly
Assam govt passed Assamese as official language
but assam not homogenous
hilly tribals feeling more deprived, loss of cultural identity
Nagaland
within Naga tribes, Brits followed non interference
1918: Naga club formed CSO, worked towards welfare of Naga ppl w/ patronage from Brits
1927: Naga club members submit memorandum to Simon Commission
requested exclusion of Nagas from proposed constitutional reforrms
& retention under direct admin of governor of Assam
1935: Naga Hills district declared excluded area within province of Assam
1945: Naga Hill District Council estd. to reconstruct shattered tribal economy
NHDC later renamed Naga National Council (NNC)
NNC submitted 4 point memorandum to cabinet mission in 1946
proclaimed solidarity of all naga tribes, including those in unadministreed areas (myanmar, manipur)
protested against grouping of assam w/ bengal province
demanded naga hills should be constitutionally in an autonomous assam w/ local autonomy and safeguards for naga interest
demanded a separate electorate
fate of naga post independence, difference of opinions
integrated autonomous state
sep pol identity under brit crown (crown colony)
sep pol arrangement w/ indian union, later naga independent state
complete immediate independence at same time as india
CG sent Sir Akbar Hydary to negotiate w/ Naga tribes. However, last clause proved contentious
led to restrictive faction under AZ Phizo to gain dominance over other factions
=> Naga declared independence on 14th Aug 1947
Phizo staged his on elections, in form of referendum
claimed 99% naga voted for independence from india
insurgency in 1953
1955: Naga federal government formed parallel with sep constitution & flag
Naga home guards converted to Naga Army
1956: Indian army inducted after which Phizo forced to flee to London
1958: AFSPA enacted
gov initiated pol dialogue w/ All Tribe Naga Convention
=> created Nagaland in 1963
govt also appt peace mission, included Reverent Michael Scott, host of AZ Phizo
Peace mission failed, cuz Naga Federal Govt did not respect suspension of Operations Agreement (Ceasefire)
in 3rd general election in Nagaland, UDF won
made efforts to bring insurgence in mainstream
led to signing Shillong Accord in 1975
some naga insurgents accepted CoI, others denounced Shillong Accord and create Nationalist Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN) w/ foreign influnce
1988: NSCN split into NSCN(IM) and NSCN(K)
demand: creation of greater nagaland as sovereign state
Assam
Ethnic:
Hinduism 64%
Islam 34% (national 14%)
Christianity 4%
Linguistic:
Assamese > Bengali > Hindi > Urdu > Bodo
1848: tea plantations started => influx of immigrants
Nature of conflict
4 types of conflict, ethnic
Tribal v Tribal: Bodos v Santhali
Trival v Non Tribal: Bodos v Muslim
Preferential ethnic treatment: Bodos want preferential rights over Assamese
Conflicts for creating separate homeland: Bodoland
Reasons for conflict
Identity Politics / Politicization of Ethnicity
any power weilding groups may start displaying hegemonic tendencies => feeling of deprivation among others
smaller tribes have long felt chauvinism of main community (plain area based Assamese community)
eg. Official Language Bill of 1959 led to identity politics among Bodos & fueled demand for separate states (Mizoram, Meghalaya)
Immigration & Demographic pressure
immigration dates back to colonial period
encouraged migration of tribes from C India to work as indentured labour in tea plantations
1905: influx after East bengal merged w/ Assam
during Bgldsh liberation war, immigration continued to rise
this immigration net restricted to Assam alone, but w/ Assam become routine activity due to porous borders
fuelled anti foreigner agitation
Geographical Isolation
Ahoms lived in close coop w/ other tribes in pre colonial time
w/ British policies of differential treatment of hill areas, social cohesion reduced
Reflexive Statist Attitude
state attitude towards Assam primarily motivated by security concerns rather than developmental needs
Mizoram
Brits followed policy of non interference
yet significantly altered socio-economic life of Mizos (Lushai Hill)
done thru interference in system of administration, proselytization efforts in the region
advent of modernity led certain political associations showing up in Lushai Hills
Mizo Union
United Mizo Freedom Org
MU in favor of staying within India
UMFO (secessionist) favored merger w/ Burma
MU dominated elections for Autonomous District Council (ADC)
failure of project of regional autonomy became a factor contributing to separatism
ADC, ARC continued facing financing issues => over dependence on SG
further, thru sustained pressure on MU, Assam Govt abolished institution of Chieftanship
Following this, UNFO governed even more radically
1953: UNFO passed resolution demanding formation of hill state consisting of Manipur, Tripura, autonomous districts of Assam and NEFA
done to resist imposition of Assamese language as official lang of state
SRC did not recommend creation of hill state, instead recc review of power of ADC
UNFO merged with other entities, created All Party Hill Leader Conference
demanded separation of hill districts from Assam state
& formation of eastern frontier state
1961: Official Language Act passed => MU couldn’t afford to moderate any longer
Mautam Famine 1959
high resentment against Assam govt for delayed & negligent relief ops
=> voluntary bodies sprang
most popular = Mizo National Famine Front 1960
MNFF dropeed word Famine and become MNF in 1961
aim of achieving independent sovereign Mizoram
1966: MNF volunteers started armed struggle against India, declared independence
rebellion lasted 20 years
ended w/ Peace Accord 1986
1987: Mizoram achieved full statehood
Laldenga first CM
Manipur
3 communities
Meities
Nagas
Kukis
Meities dominate plain area
others dominate hill
Meities adopted Vaishnava Hinduism
others proselytized by the British
post Treaty of Yandabo, Brits restored monarchy but exercised control indirectly
3 tribes stayed together for centuries, developed their heritages parallely
account of differential treatment of hills & plain areas of Manipur
introduction of Christianity further widened cultural gap
in addition, tribal chiefs did not coordinate struggles & assimilate local idenities
Growth of Meiti Identity
perceived forced merged w/ indian state
threat posed by Naga mvmt
bureaucratic aloofness since manipur wa governed as a UT b/w 1949-72
serious unemployment among youth
exposure of leaders to Marxist ideas
Growth of Naga Identity
naga in manipur were neither signatory to memorandum by Naga Club to Simon Commission, nor part of AZ Phizo Plebiscite 1951
naga in manipur rose against Brits in 1930
only when Meities opposed the demand of NSCN(IM), Naga nationalism in Manipur turned assertive
Growth of Kuki Nationalism
started w/ mobilization against Brit (Kuki rebellion)
As Nagas & other tribal grps in region started getting their homeland, Kuki also became assertive and raised demand for separate Kuki homeland: Zale’ngam
Contemporary Issues
Autonomy, Local self govt
divergent pol aspirations of ethnic grps in manipur
based on belief that adequate pol power necessary to retain cultural identity
baised political structure
leans towards Meity domination, because 40/60 state legislature seats are for meity dominated valley region
Property rights
present land laws in state permit tribals to purchase land in valley region
but Meity from valley can’t purchase land in hill
Meity demand for ST status
owing to perception of neglect
constitution protection under 5th schedule will extend to their lands, allaying fears of extinction
however, to hill tribe, main reason wyh meities asked for ST status is to avail job reservations and make inroads into hill areas of state
State govt forest policy
major recent discontentment => SG notices blaming certain villages in Chura Chandpur & Khoupum protected areas as illegal settlements & their residents as encroachers
Contemporary issues & solutions
Nagaland
Issues
lack of unity amongst Naga rebels hampered efforts to negotiate lasting peace agreement
Govt initiatives
creating of Naga Hills Tuensang Areas (NHTA)
creation of State of Nagaland 1963
1997 Ceasefire agreement w/ NSCN (IM)
since then peace talks have been ongoing and largely focused on major demands of NSCN (IM) including
territorial integration of naga areas into greater nagaland
nagan should have their own constitution to govern integrated nagaland, repealing AFSPA
Persistence of Problems
2015: framework agreement signed b/w Indian govt & NSCN(IM)
govt demands that any governance struct of Nagas must remain within struct of CoI
govt opposed to territorial changes in Assam, Arunachal, Manipur
Assam
Issues
rise & decline of ULFA
view integration of assam w/ india as being done w/o free consent of assamese
assert that assam has distinct cultural identity different from rest of india
allege that benefits of asam resources not equitabliy shared with the state
aggrieved by tardy implementation of assam accord
Govt initiatives
Operation All Clear: Joint operation against ULFA & National Democratic Front of Boroland w/ help of Royal Bhutanese Army