Pressure Groups
Definition
formally organized associations that seek to influence govt policies without directly contesting for political power
- representing specific interests
- function outside formal political structure
- mediate b/w state & citiens
Pluralist view
Robert Dahl, David Truman
Power in society is dispersed among various competing groups rather than being concentrated in hands of few elites.
- enhancing participation - trade union, consumer association
- representation of diverse interests
- expertise, policy input
- transparency, accountability eg. greenpeace
- dispersal of power
Quote
Democracy is not merely about voting but about continuous negotiation among competing interests.
Criticisms of pluralist view on pressuge group
- CWMills: elite monopoly over lobbies
- insider vs outsider groups
- lack of marginal group representation
- policy distortion
- empirical limits - PG may be co-opted by political elites or used for patronage
Modern perspectives
- Dahl’s “Polyarchy”
- new social media
- online advocacy network
Civil Society
sphere of voluntary associations, orgs that exist between state, market & family eg. NGO, unions, professional bodies, media
Alexis de Tocqueville
Civil associations act as “school of democracy”
Role of civil society
- public edu, awareness
- ADR: voter awareness
- voice to marginalized: dalit/tribal movements
- policy inputs: env NGO
- transparency, accountability
- RTI activism
- Legitimacy, trust building in democratic institutions
Jan Scholte
Civil Society sustains democracy through education, representation, accountability and legitimacy.
Limitations
- undemocratic / divisive
- sectarianism, extremism, exclusion
- elite capture western bias
- weak institutional interface
- govt consult civil society superficially
- lack of internal democracy
- cultural insensitivity
Structural Strain Theory
aka Value Added Theory
Multi causal, rejecting idea for single cause for collective behaviour.
6 value added elements for social movement
- structural conduciveness
- structural strain
- generalized belief
- precipitating factors
- mobilization for action
- failure of social control
Critcism
- vague (degree of strain not defined)
- determinism
- assumes linear / predictable progression of movements
- neglect of human creativity, leadership, negotiation in shaping movements (Herbert Blumer)
- Contextual limitation
- explains spontaneous collective behaviour
- but not long term organized movements
Weberian Power
zero sum
Critique
- overly conflictual, ignores cooperative aspects
- cannot explain welfare states, participatory governance, where power benefits all
Parsonian Power
Variable sum
Criticism
- idealistic, naive
- underestimates extent to which power is used for self interest & domination
- eg. CW Mills: Power Elite
Elite Power
Vilfredo Pareto - Mind & Society 1935
- personal qualities distinguish rulers from ruled
- lions: rule by force
- foxes: rule by cunning
- circulation of elites
- when one group degenerates, another replaces it
- elite dominance
- elite rule is psychologically inevitable as superior individual always rises to top
Gaetano Mosca - The Ruling Class 1896
- minority rule inevitable
- but unlike Pareto, qualities vary across society & time
- elites are more open & mobile in modern democracy
- democracy may be “government for the people”, but never “by the people”
Both saw elite rule as natural & necessary
C Wright Mills - The Power Elite 1956
- institutional focus:
- military
- federal govt
- corporations
- interlocking interests, cohesive minority, shared background, social networks
- elite rule not inevitable
- it is only historical development of modern industrial socities where bureaucracy & capitalism merge to produce structural concentration of power
- masses are politically passive & manipulated, because institutional controls limits participation